Adelsö and the World of the Vikings

August 22, 2024 by Fredrik Trusohamn

Explore Viking history at Adelsö! Dive into ancient mounds, Viking rituals, and medieval mysteries. Discover the past with our immersive app—download Historian now!

Introduction

Welcome to Adelsö and into the world of the Vikings. We stand in a landscape that has been under constant change since the giant Ice Age glaciers retreated thousands of years ago. It is here that our story begins in the sea. With the massive glaciers gone, the land slowly rose from the dark waters.

Initially, Adelsö was just a tiny island in a growing archipelago. But it wasn't long before humans settled here, drawn by its strategic location and new resources. From their remains, we can see that these immigrants primarily lived off fishing and seal hunting.

However, the landscape would continue to change. New eras would introduce new technologies, materials, and contacts far beyond little Adelsö. Each advancement, from the use of stone to copper and then to bronze, marked a significant shift in the island's history. Times of unrest came, and iron replaced bronze, further shaping Adelsö's development. Two hill fortifications were built on Adelsö, one at Skansenberget and one at Gladhamn, a testament to the island's strategic importance.

Our saga here continues at the end of the Iron Age, a time of exploration and long-distance contacts and a time when much was changing in what would become Sweden. The period we will explore here in the area will mostly take place during the Vendel period and the Viking Age. Let us now step into history.

Mounds

Before you now rise the so-called royal mounds. Although they do not reach the impressive dimensions of the famous mounds at Gamla Uppsala, these graves bear important testimony to the significance of this site. These monumental graves were intended for the most prominent members of society. The ones before us have not yet been explored through excavations, leaving the identities of those resting within shrouded in mystery. We hope these graves are undisturbed from looting, allowing future research to offer us more profound insights.

Burial customs during the Viking Age varied greatly, and there was no uniform burial system. For example, at Birka, located just across the water, we have discovered chamber graves, a method where a chamber was dug out and furnished for the deceased. Eleven such graves have been found at Birka, all filled with stones, raising the question of whether they were once covered by burial mounds that have collapsed over time.

We also find other types of graves, such as flat graves, ship burials, and simpler earth burials without any ceremonial additions. Burial mounds, a tradition that dates back to the Neolithic period, have continued to be a part of the burial tradition through the Bronze Age and into the Iron Ages, including the Viking Age.

Particularly during the Vendel period and the Viking Age, it was popular to erect what we call Royal Mounds; notable examples include those at Gamla Uppsala and Anundshög near Västerås. These impressive burial mounds, which also include Högom in Medelpad and Nordian's mound in Uppland, among others, differ from other mounds in their size. A mound is considered a royal mound if it has a diameter of at least 30 meters. Those more prominent than 20 meters but smaller than 30 meters are classified as large mounds. This tradition of large mounds began already in the Bronze Age but became particularly notable during the Vendel and Viking periods.

Now, let us continue our walk toward one of the excavated mounds to explore more about life and death during this fascinating era.

Skopintull

Now we stand before the mound known as Skopintull. This name sparks curiosity and has led to various theories about its origin. Does the name come from the idea that this was where people changed into their Sunday shoes before attending church? Could it be linked to the Russian raids, or is there perhaps a completely different explanation behind the name? What is known is that this mound was excavated under the leadership of one of Sweden's first female archaeologists, Hannah Rydh, amid the raging world war in 1917.

Although the excavation was carried out in 1917, it wasn't until 1936 that Rydh published her findings. And it would take even longer, until 2013, before some of the mound's mysteries began to be unveiled. During her excavations, Rydh discovered a layer of burnt material rich in bone remains, totaling up to 36 kilos, from horses, dogs, and even a cat. Additionally, there were bones from pigs, sheep, cows, and various bird species, including sea eagle, goshawk, chicken, and crane. Interestingly, osteological evidence of two humans, likely a man and a woman, was also found, but exactly who the mound was intended for remains unclear.

The grave goods discovered were considerably rich, including bridles, combs, knives, game pieces, and a shield. The clothes of the buried individuals appeared to have origins from the Orient, richly decorated with gold thread. The ceremony seems to have been conducted by placing the bodies and goods in a boat, which was then set on fire. The collected remains were placed in a copper kettle, which was examined more closely in 2013, where researchers found an egg and a lock of hair, the significance of which and whom the hair belonged to remain a mystery.

This grave clearly indicates that those who rest here were part of the society's upper class. Based on the items in the grave, we know these individuals lived during the first half of the 10th century.

Now, it's time to leave Skopintull behind and continue our journey through history towards encountering a new religion that would profoundly and enduringly shape Sweden.

The New Religion

Before us stands a clear symbol of change in the Viking Age society. The contacts with the continent introduced not only new techniques and goods to Scandinavia but also new ideas and gods. The Christianization of Scandinavia was a long and complex process. While threats of violence likely occurred, the conversion did not take place by sword or axe. Instead, Christianity crept in through trade, missions, and interactions with thralls. When a new, more potent royal power embraced the new faith, it began to drive the Europeanization of Sweden, establishing laws that compelled people to adopt Christianity, which accelerated the conversion. Olof Skötkonung was the first Christian king of Sweden who actively promoted the new faith by minting coins and proselytization.

Despite the official embrace of Christianity, traces of the old Norse religion survived quietly, and it is unclear when it finally disappeared completely, mainly due to laws that forbade pagan practices.

Looking closer at the building before us, we see it is a classic medieval hall church, characteristic of its time. This means it has a nave and chancel of the same height without a distinct separation between these two parts—a detail you can observe if you go inside.

There are theories that a wooden church once stood on this site, but no physical evidence has yet been found. We do know that the first stone church here was likely ordered to be built by the king at the end of the 12th century, initially without a bell tower and with a narrower nave and a lower chancel with an apse in the shape of a semicircle.

The first major reconstruction occurred in the 14th century when the church was expanded to its current appearance, and a tower was added. A wooden porch was also built in the 14th century, but after a fire, it was reconstructed in the 17th century. During the 18th century, the church bells were moved from an external belfry into the tower, and in the 19th century, the porch was demolished, and the entrance was moved to its current location.

Inside the church, we find the baptismal font, one of the few furnishings from the church's early days. Simple in its design and made of coarse sandstone in the 12th century, it is one of the few furnishings from the church's early days. If you look up towards the sacristy, you'll notice a crucifix from the 14th century above the door. Inside the sacristy is another crucifix from the 14th century, originally part of a now-lost altarpiece.

Sacristy’s Runestones

Now that we are in the sacristy, let's look at the north wall. Here, we can see two runestones embedded in the wall. There was also a third runestone in the church, which unfortunately was lost in the porch fire. The surviving stones are labeled U 1 and U 10.

The left stone, U 10, its origin is somewhat mysterious; it was found in a gravel pit and brought to the church. The stone has two lines of text which read, "Aft Øpi standi stæinn saʀ ok Lokki(?) gærði." In modern Swedish, this translates to "The stone was raised after Öpir, and Lokki made [it]." The stone has been broken off, but we can assume that Lokki was the one who carved it.

The right stone, U 1, is probably younger, based on the serpent loop design. The inscription reads “Æskell let retta stæin þenna [æ]f[tiʀ] …, faður sinn, [b]o[nd]a goðan.” In Swedish, this teaches us that Äskell raised the stone in memory of his father, who was a good man.

Let us now leave the church and continue to our next site.

The Old Harbour

We stand in a place where land elevation has transformed the landscape over millennia. The year we return to is 1075, and at that time, the water was a full six meters higher than today. This means that during the Viking Age, the water's edge was just a short distance from where we now stand. Here, archaeologists have uncovered remnants of what was once a quay.

One can only imagine what this harbor must have been like, with ships arriving to unload their goods, and missionaries, soldiers, and diplomats stopping by. Against this backdrop, erecting a runestone here would have been a great honor, likely reserved only for distinguished individuals. The six-ton runestone we stand before tells a somewhat different story.

As you approach the stone, let yourself be captivated by the exquisite craftsmanship and richness of detail in the runemaster's work. The dragon loop that encircles the stone and bites its own tail is an artistic expression and a time marker. Just as fashion trends shift over time, this loop reflects a style known as the middle Urnes style, or PR4, for those more academically inclined. Researchers have been able to distinguish eight different styles which can help us date runestones. Thanks to this style, we can determine the years the stone could have been made and which king might be mentioned on it.

It's important to note that the red paint now highlighting the runes is a modern addition, intended to make the inscriptions stand out for us. Originally, the stone was an explosion of colors, decorated in black, white, and red, which made it a striking sight for all who arrived at the harbor.

The inscription on the stone tells a fascinating story:

"Rað þu runaʀ. Rätt lät rista Toliʀ bryti i roði kunungi. Toliʀ ok Gylla letu ris[ta] …, þaun hion æftiʀ [si]k(?) mærki … Hakon bað rista."

Translated, it reads:

"Interpret the runes. The right to carve them for the king was granted by Tolir, the steward in Roden. Tolir and Gylla, the couple, had this monument raised in their memory. Håkon ordered the carving."

What is interesting about this stone is that Tolir refers to himself as a 'bryte,' a particular class of thrall or slave. Like in some other cultures, slaves in Viking society could become free. However, there was a catch; even if they became free, and we have examples like Toki, who we know was freed, they still held the same legal status. Once a thrall, always a thrall. But it is worth noting that Tolir, with his position, had quite a bit of power even though he was not a free man.

This may explain why Tolir emphasizes that he had the right and permission to erect the stone. Slaves also did not have the right to marry, which may suggest that Tolir had become free but retained his title.

The Viking Age view of class and beauty adds another layer to this story. Unlike today's society, where class is often associated with economy and inheritance, Vikings also highly valued physical beauty, especially among men. This idea can be clearly seen in myths and legends such as in the work 'Rígsþula.' In this text, the aesthetic aspect of social hierarchy is highlighted, from the humble ugly thrall to the noble, beautiful Earl. The one who created the classes was Heimdall, who shared a bed with three families who had different physical attributes. The result is that the thrall is ugly and suited for simple tasks, free men become robust and healthy, and the Earl becomes the most beautiful person in the world. That is why Skalds always made sure to find something that could be described as beautiful on the Earl.

Through this brief text written on the stone, we can open a window to the past, glimpsing the everyday life and values of those who lived during the Viking Age. Let us now continue our journey.

Harbour Defence During the Viking Age

If we had been transported back to the Viking Age and stood here without a boat, we would have found ourselves in the middle of the water! Where we now stand, in the heart of the historic harbor area of Alsnö, was once a bustling center of maritime commerce and trade. If you look out over the water now, it may seem calm and empty. But archaeologists have discovered a fascinating defensive structure made of stakes. These stakes are believed to have been part of a protective barrier strategically designed to prevent enemy ships from attacking the harbor freely. The defensive system forms a semicircle in the water, with a deliberate opening - a channel that allows ships to enter the harbor one at a time.

It's possible that this structure also served a dual function as a breakwater, protecting the harbor from storms and high waves. This is a testament to the engineering prowess of the Viking Age and their ability to create structures that served multiple purposes – both practical and defense-related.

Let us now leave the secrets of the water behind and walk upwards, towards the once majestic Alsnö house.

Alsnö Castle

Welcome to what was once a royal palace – today, perhaps merely a shadow of its former self, but 800 years ago, this site was dominated by an impressive three-story building. By the architectural standards of the time, this was truly a spectacle. The foundation, which remains can still be seen, is made of stone, while the palace it self was made out of brick – a material regarded as both novel and luxurious at the time.

Stories are etched into its walls and in the materials used. For example, a proud master builder named Bovæ left his mark on a brick carved in runes, not once but twice. Showing that runes were still used in this area during what we would call the Middle Ages.

The earliest evidence of Alsnö House's origins is coins found on the site, the oldest dating to the reign of Valdemar Birgersson between 1266 and 1275. Archaeologists discovered the coin among the stones, indicating it was dropped during construction. The palace was likely built over the earlier royal manor. However, neither post holes nor other remnants of the former royal manor have been found.

Alsnö House extended 30 meters in length and 14 meters wide. Its ground floor holds traces of grandeur, evidenced by ornately decorated brick floor tiles and an impressive fireplace. A brick wall separated part of the room, and in the western part of the building, wooden floors were discovered, the remains of which Bengt Thordeman found charred during excavations in 1920.

The oldest known depiction of Alsnö House, from a survey map dated to 1751, shows a building with a gateway tower and barrel vaults. This, along with architectural comparisons and historical documents, has led to new insights into what the building might have looked like. Previously, it was believed that the palace had only two floors, but now it is thought to likely have had three.

The architectural inspiration behind Alsnö House seems to have been Håkon Håkonson's palace building in Bergen, known as Håkonshallen or Bergenhus, completed in 1251. The similarities between these two regal buildings perhaps underscore Magnus Ladulås's desire to erect an equally impressive palace. The main difference is that Håkonshallen also features a defensive tower, which has not been found at Adelsö. However, two stone-walled cellars have been rediscovered just west outside the building. The function of the cellars has not yet been fully explained, but perhaps they were part of a defensive tower.

But Alsnö House is not just a site of architectural admiration. It was here that one of Sweden's most significant legal documents, the Alsnö Statute, was created under the leadership of Magnus Ladulås. This statute changed the foundation of the Swedish nobility by offering tax exemption to those who contributed soldiers and warriors and marked the end of the nobles' right to demand lodging and food from the peasantry without compensation.

Alsnö House had a short but glamorous heyday. After 1304, no king dated a letter from Alsnö, something Ander Ödman attributes to the emergence of Stockholm Castle. Stockholm Castle appears to have been built around 1300, which would align well with the abandonment of Alsnö. However, there is some mystery surrounding the downfall of the house. Numerous crossbow bolts have been found around the site, and some suggest that the Vitaliebrothers might have burned down the house. These German privateers wanted to restore King Albert to the throne, but this must have occurred after 1389, indicating that the site retained some significance long after 1304.

The Viking Home

Welcome home! Before us stands a reconstructed dwelling inspired by what a home might have looked like during the Viking Age. This farmstead reflects a typical residence for the free, somewhat wealthier, smaller landowners in society. Here we find two or perhaps three buildings, which was typical. Some of these farms could also have included one or two pit-houses – partially dug-in workshop buildings that were an important part of the farm.

Interestingly, we know less about Viking Age dwellings than earlier periods in the Iron Age. However, archaeological studies indicate that housing patterns were relatively consistent over time. Since the Bronze Age, the dominant construction method in Sweden has been the three-aisled longhouse. This type of building was supported by several pairs of posts that held up the roof, while the walls could be made of wattle and daub, earth, turf, or stone – depending on available materials. Depending on the size of the house, it could contain several sections, including a kitchen area, sleeping quarters, stables, storage, as well as rooms for entertainment and living.

Towards the end of the Viking Age, around the year 900, a new architectural design began to emerge, especially in the southern parts of Scandinavia. Here, we find the Trelleborg houses, a type of building we see in the Trelleborgs built under the rule of Harald Bluetooth in Denmark. These houses were considerably wider than earlier ones, up to twelve meters in width, and could also have a second floor. On Gotland, another house model began to emerge that was smaller in size and had only a central aisle, but the roof was supported by strong walls instead of columns as we see in the longhouses in Sweden.

The Sail and the Vikings

Although we can't showcase one of the so-called pit-houses here, they represent one of the most fascinating aspects of Viking Age innovation. These structures have been linked to the introduction of the sail. This invention revolutionized the Scandinavians' way of exploring and conquering. The presence of sails in Scandinavia does not appear to have been established until the late Iron Age, making the term "The Age of Sail" or perhaps "Sail Era" a fitting description for the Viking period.

According to available sources, the sails were primarily made of wool and treated with fat, tallow, or fish oil to make them windproof and durable. The process of creating a sail was highly time-consuming. Lise Bender Jørgensen has estimated that a wool sail for an average longship required about 90 square meters of fabric. Considering that a skilled spinner could produce between 30 to 50 meters of yarn per hour, this would mean 4800 working hours just for spinning and an additional 3200 hours to weave the fabric. This equates to, in modern Swedish working hours, four years of work, excluding the time it takes to harvest and process the wool. Moreover, considering the need for additional equipment for voyages – such as extra sails, tents, clothing, and provisions for a crew of up to 32 sailors – it could take up to 24 years to fully equip a ship with textiles alone.

The Viking Age was undoubtedly a flourishing period for sheep owners. Estimates show that nearly one million square meters of wool were needed for this massive production, corresponding to the need for approximately two million sheep. This demand for wool led to significant societal changes, where small farms merged into larger units to streamline production. As we have already mentioned, with the new farm structure, we see the pit-houses, where archaeologists have found evidence of textile production in the form of loom weights and looms. It is unlikely that the free women on the farm performed this work; instead, much indicates that it was the responsibility of the thralls. The conditions in these weaving houses were harsh, with poor light and air filled with wool particles, making the work environment both suffocating and unhealthy.

This increased demand for labor to meet the production of sails and other necessities may have been one of the driving forces behind the Vikings' raiding expeditions. More labor enabled greater production, leading to larger armies and the need for even more textiles and labor. This created a self-reinforcing cycle, where slaves were captured during raids and sold into existing trade networks. By the beginning of the 11th century, some Viking fleets could comprise up to 200 ships. Slavery thus formed a fundamental part of Viking society – without slavery, there would be no Viking Age.

Sources, resources, and further reading suggestions

Music

“Folie hatt” by Trallskruv

Lily of the woods by Sandra Marteleur